fahmina institute Cirebon

Journalism in simplest terms means reporting; that is, the process of seeking and obtaining data or news from sources then arranging and conveying it to the public through available media, both print and electronic.  Once perhaps it was sufficient for “journalism” to be conveyed orally, via spokespersons or officially endorsed preachers, from pulpits, podiums or general meeting places.  However modern journalism, in practical terms, is identified with news printed on sheets of paper by the printing press, the invention of Johann Gutenberg. This momentous event at the beginning of the 15th century changed Europe, and indeed the world, by making possible public communication that was organised, continuous and large scale.  In press circles it is often said: ‘In the beginning there was the printed word’.

 

In Jurnalistik; Teori dan Praktik ([Journalism: Theory and Practice]: 2005) Hikmat Kusumaningrat and Purnama Kusumaningrat explain that ‘Journalism’ originates from the word ‘journal’, which means ‘daily record’ or ‘record of daily events’.  The word ‘journal’ itself originates from the Latin word ‘diurnalis’ which means ‘daily’ or ‘every day’.  The word ‘journalist’ is used for people who carry out the work of journalism, or the seeking, reporting and communication of news in the media.

In the past, journalism was often used in the interests of power-holders, such as kings and feudal land owners.  This model is called ‘authoritarian journalism’ because the public is not involved in determining the agenda and contents of journalism.  In such a model, the public are only objects, seen from the point of view of those in power, and there is no space open to the public to give voice to their wishes, thoughts or interests.  Authoritarian journalism only, or primarily, reports the life of rulers, their families and their retinue, and then only in terms of their goodness and generosity to the people.  Reports concerning policies released by rulers are always full of approval and lofty praise.  News about the public or the people is limited to accounts of loyal followers and the many rewards showered on them or of dissidents and the kinds of torture and punishment they have suffered – this as a lesson to the people to become loyal subjects and not dissidents.

Journalism in more or less this form can be found in countries, organisations and community groups based on ideology, or, in other words, in which a particular ideology is the basis of the movement and the determiner of every policy in the group or organisation.  Religion, when it is turned into an ideology, can also produce a model of journalism with authoritarian characteristics.  The “truth” of ideological journalism is determined by a single path which is considered as complete, as a finished product that must be accepted.  The public, who should benefit from journalism, are instead forced to accept entirely the truth as presented to them by authorities or not accept it at all.  Praise to loyal supporters, and threats towards those with differing opinions, and especially critics, are characteristic features of ideological journalism such as this. It is news for the ruler, or news for the country, news for ideology, news for art, or news for religion.  News is a tool for a particular power, be it the power of the state, a particular group or particular brand of understanding.  The common characteristic of authoritarian journalism is that it strengthens the power of the state which fully controls the press through a system of permits or censorship.

Whenever print and electronic media is owned by specific groups – ideological, political or religious groups –  which force their ideas on the public, there exists, at least in theory, an example of authoritarian journalism.  These examples fit the model of authoritarian journalism because the public are not provided with education which allows them to consider or choose alternatives, using their own reason and responsibility.  This is especially true if the media is loaded with propaganda and self-justification, with no criticism of authorities, concentrates on blaming or finding fault in others rather than agitating for change, or publishes false accusations of heresy and deviance.  Such kinds of journalism are characteristic of the theory and model of authoritarian journalism.

Muhammad Budyatna, Professor of Communication Science at the University of Indonesia, states that journalism that developed in Indonesia from the time of colonisation until Soeharto was toppled on 21st May, 1998 was an example of authoritarian journalism.  During that period, those in power were able to enforce bans, whenever they wished, on newspapers that were considered ‘irresponsible’ towards the values adopted by the state.  In colonial times, there was a policy of banning publications that were considered a threat to the colonial power.  In addition to the policy of banning publications inherited from the Dutch, in the 1950s the Indonesian government released a policy making a Publication Permit compulsory for media publications.  

This model of journalism has faced massive criticism from liberation movements ever since French Revolution.  In developing countries, criticism of authoritarian journalism has grown as political and economic freedoms have increased.  In Indonesia, these freedoms began to be realised in the era of reformasi, after the collapse of Soeharto’s New Order in 1998.  During this era, the requirement for a publication permit and the policy of banning publications were abolished.  These measures intended to free journalism from the shackles of the state and other power-holders.

Libertarian Journalism; Freeing Political Interests

Authoritarian and ideological journalism is incapable of expressing the real truth because it is only a tool of those in power.  Journalism must be freed from all external controls, state, ideological and religious.  Journalism must exist and operate from and for itself alone: Journalism for journalism, or news for news.  It must be guarded by the public so that it does not become a tool from or for any power-holders in society.  It must be itself alone, as a media for anyone to give voice to truths and realities facing society and the public. Journalism must be freed from the shackles of power and ideology.
Such a model of journalism is known as ‘libertarian journalism’.  Its basic assumption is that that every individual human must be seen as a rational, responsible creature capable of distinguishing right from wrong.  According to this view, the media or press must give all human beings an opportunity to report, and to report anything they choose, because the people themselves and the people alone, as consumers of the press, possess the capacity to choose and evaluate news responsibly.  Any and every restriction on news will distance the user from the opportunity to access all the news they need.  The press or media must therefore be conceived as a human partnership in seeking truth and information.  Press for the public cannot become a tool for government propaganda, ideological propaganda or propaganda for any one particular kind of understanding.  This demand for the press to become a tool for controlling the government, rather than one controlled by the government, is the essence of free journalism, or, in other words, Libertarian Journalism.

Within this model of journalism, John Milton proposed the idea of a “self-righting process”.   That is the idea that the press and the public have to be given an opportunity to access all ideas and find their own truth from the ideas on offer.  In order to achieve this, a policy of a “free market of ideas” must be guaranteed.  There cannot be any bans or prohibitions, from the ruling powers or any other parties, on ideas that the can be brought to light by the press or media.  The public itself will control the press through this “self-righting” process that in practice, if it threatens or damages public interests, can be dealt with through legal channels, rather than as a matter of subversion against the state.  Libertarian Journalism desires that all ideas have the same opportunity to emerge in the public and every person must be given the same opportunity to be able to access all information, especially that of a public nature.

Free press, or libertarian journalism, gives a foundation of unlimited freedom to the press so that it can deliver a variety of information, entertainment, news and miscellany to the public.  Under these conditions, sold in massive numbers and in enormous print runs, the press can attain a kind of god-like status because it can provide everything the public dreams of or wishes.  Free press, without permits, without sensors or controls.  Under conditions such as these, it is possible for a media outlet can grow until it develops a monopoly and controls the entire press market under the slogan of public interest.

 

In reality there is no such thing as the condition of true freedom, including freedom of the press.  For when freedom is declared, it will lead to a struggle over ideas and news, and this struggle with inevitably be won by those who possess strength, especially capital and economic strength.  Free press, which in the beginning was created to benefit the public without fear of control from the government, in practice gives little benefit to the public.  In fact, free press very rarely controls government, except if that control will increase its ratings and enlarge its circulation.

Freedom of the press is more often used to accumulate capital than to be useful or benefit the public.  Media companies will not impose many regulations, except those that create material profit for their owners.  The press thus demonstrates a tendency not to care about public interest issues.  The media more often serves up sensationalist, provocative and mindless stories and news: crime stories, pornography, excessive entertainment, tales of the paranormal and articles that give satisfaction to the community’s baser appetites.

Freedom of the press can also be exploited, by paying money, for political interests or the interests of particular powerful parties.  A press that is held hostage by such political interests usually publishes news about the success of one party or powerful person without providing the public with information about their mistakes or shortcomings, even though information about the government, both positive and negative, is a public right.  Regional newspapers, in this era of reformation, are often trapped in such a situation, because it is the only way to get started and preserve their newspaper.

Such tendencies, which can occur in models of libertarian journalism, have caused many to demand ‘social responsibility’ from the press.  Freedom of the press should not mean giving control only to the owners and operators of the press to decide what facts will be presented to the public.  In 1949 in the USA, a commission was formed to “control” freedom of the press.  It was headed by Robert Hutchins.  This commission then proposed the idea of ‘social responsibility of the press’ by obliging the press to bind itself to the following conditions:  1) to present news events in a manner that is true, trustworthy, complete and of intellectual value or otherwise meaningful; 2) to be a forum for the exchange of commentary and criticism between ideas; 3) to project a picture that represents the groups that constitute the community; 4) to be an instrument of education, that encourages the public to achieve community goals and aspirations; 5) to provide full access to undisclosed information that is in the public interest, which is the public’s right.

The Press, Islam and Humanitarianism

Islam is a system of values and directives revealed by Allah SWT for humanity.  Islam is more a spirit for the press or journalism rather than a school or theory of journalism. Therefore there is no need for the phrase ‘Islamic Journalism’, as a school of journalism. If there is, perhaps it is more appropriate to be defined as journalism about Islam or about Muslims.  Alternatively, Islamic Journalism could be defined as journalism that integrates Islamic values, namely monotheism and humanism.  Monotheism that ennobles humanity, and humanism that still reveres divinity.

We can take inspiration from four attitudes of the prophet – shiddiq (truthfulness), amanah (responsibility), tabligh (total disclosure) dan fathonah (intelligence) – when we try to discuss Islamic values and journalism.  This discussion is one of our efforts to demand the press and media take social responsibility in their journalistic work, and not merely work for their own benefit in accumulating capital or the political benefit of a particular group, power or individual.

The press must possess commitment to the mandate of ‘humanitarianism’ as the mandate of Islam. It is likely that a long time press will require considerable time to debate humanist and humanitarian values; however, at the very least, the press must be based on justice, not injure humanity and not deliberately set out to destroy a particular group without right of reply.  The press must possess a strong commitment and be controlled by the public to educate the public in a manner that is neither forced nor preached.  Another principle that must be upheld is to avoid blaming or persecuting victims, because in these capitalist times, victims often do not possess free will to safeguard their own honour.  When victims experience problems in their relations with those more powerful, the press should be committed to defend them and address their problem.  This must be high in the minds of media practitioners when carrying out their journalist work, starting from the accumulation of data until reporting to the public.  This is what makes possible what I have sketched briefly above and called Islamic Humanitarian Journalism.[]

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